Shangdi (上帝, pinyin: Shàngdì, Wade-Giles Shang Ti, lit. "High Sovereign"), also known as Di in Oracle Bone inscriptions and Thirteen Classics, refers to the supreme god or a divine power regarded as the spiritual ultimate by the Chinese people from the Shang Dynasty. He controlled victory in battle, harvest, the fate of the kingdom, and the weather. Shang Di ruled a hierarchy of other gods controlling nature, as well as the spirits of the deceased.[1] Shangdi was probably more transcendental than immanent, only working through lesser gods.[2] During the Zhou Dynasty, Shangdi was associated with Heaven (天 Tiān).[3] By the time of the Han dynasty, the influential Confucian scholar Zheng Xuan explained that "Shangdi is another name for Tian." Dong Zhongshu said that "Tian is the ultimate authority, the king of gods who should be admired by the king."[4] Shangdi remains chiefly synonymous with Heaven since Zhou Dynasty. Emperors of China are sons of Shangdi, i.e. Son of Heaven. Shangdi was considered too distant to be worshiped directly by mortals. Shang kings claimed that Shangdi made himself accessible only through the souls of their royal ancestors.[5]
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The earliest references to Shangdi are found in Oracle Bone inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty (ca. 1600 – ca. 1046 BC). The Shang Kings searched for approval or validation from Shangdi for state action. They used the shoulder blades of oxen killed as sacrificial offerings or oracle bones to send questions or communications by fire to the divine realm. The application of heat caused the bones or shells to crack, and then royal diviners interpreted the cracks as Shangdi's responses to the King. Oracle Bone inscriptions were archived as official records. There were usually no routine sacrificial offerings made directly to Shangdi. Shang kings offered sacrifices to the other spirits or deities presided by Shangdi. Ordinary people approached Shangdi by worshiping their ancestors. Shangdi was gradually replaced by Heaven (Tian). In Zhou texts, Shangdi is a moral force that is unambiguously good. He exercised its power according to exacting moral standards.[6] Shangdi also is concerned about Chinese people's well being and moral character, which led to the setting up of ethical standards that foster virtuous behavior and social harmony. When Heaven sends down calamities, a man who calamities himself will no longer be able to live. The descendants of Shang were submissive to Zhou because Heaven passed mandate to the virtuous kings of Zhou.
Confucian scholars originally were ritual specialists that served as officers of the Shang and Zhou royal courts.[7] They inherited scholarship and the sacred books from the Shang and Zhou. In the theology of Confucianism, Shangdi is the Logos (principle) which is the divine path of god.[8] Rites are the Logos of Shangdi.[9] In the tradition of New-Text School, Confucius is a "throne-less king" of Shangdi and a savior of the world. But Old-text school persisted that Confucius is a sage of Shangdi who had given new interpretation to the heritage from previous three great dynasties.[10] Shangdi is mentioned in Chinese literature in the Five Classics, which were allegedly edited by Confucius in the 6th century BC. All of the Five Classics include references to Shangdi:
| char | pinyin | English | occurrence |
|---|---|---|---|
| 書經 | Shujing | Classic of History | 32 times |
| 詩經 | Shijing | Classic of Poetry | 24 times |
| 禮記 | Liji | Classic of Rites | 20 times |
| 春秋 | Chunqiu | Spring and Autumn Annals | 8 times |
| 易經 | Yijing | Classic of Changes | 2 times |
Other classics mention Shangdi as well. Another "Classic" collection, the Four Books (四書, pinyin: Sì Shū), mentions Shangdi also, but it is a later compilation and the references are much more sparse and abstract. The highest number of occurrences appear in the earliest references; this pattern may reflect increasing rationalization of Shangdi over time. The Book of Documents says, "August Heaven has no partial affections; it supports only the virtuous." In Zuo Zhuan's explaination, "unless one is virtuous, the people will not be in harmony and the spirits will not partake of one's offerings. What the spirits are attracted to his one's virtue." The Odes say: "Heaven creates the teeming multitudes; All things are governed by their proper principles. Abide by the normal nature of man, and all will love these beautiful virtues."
One of the five books in the Wujing is the Classic of History, (書經, pinyin: Shujing), aka Book of History, aka Esteemed Book (尚書, pinyin: Shangshu). The Shujing is possibly the earliest narrative of China, and may predate the European historian Herodotus (about 440 BC) as a history by many centuries. This implies that Shangdi is the oldest deity directly referenced by any Chinese narrative literature. The Shujing itself is also divided into 5 parts, and those parts were actually considered books as well. However, the number of books or "documents" is a division that varies depending on the version or compilation. Therefore, quoted references may not match in different compilations.
The 2nd of the 5 "books" inside the Shujing is called the "Book of Yu" (虞書, pinyin: Yushu). Yu, in this title, is a location, not the popular hero Yu (禹). This "book" has 4 "chapters"; and the 1st "chapter" is called the "Canon of Shun" (舜典, pinyin: Shun Dian). Emperor Shun was the predecessor to the heroic Da Yu (大禹), or Great Yu, the first emperor of the Xia Dynasty. About the third sentence is the first mention of Shangdi. And, as it was mentioned in the previous section how yearly sacrifices to Shangdi were made by Emperor Shun, the Chinese belief in Shangdi may have been regarded as predating the Xia Dynasty.
From the earliest eras of Chinese history, Shangdi was officially worshipped through sacrificial rituals. It is the first and foremost important ritual of the state. Shangdi is believed to rule over natural and ancestral spirits, who act as His ministers. Shangdi is thought to be the Supreme Guide of both the natural order and the human order. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to Shangdi at the great Temple of Heaven in the imperial capital. During the ritual a completely healthy bull would be slaughtered and presented as an animal sacrifice to Shangdi. It is important to note that Shangdi is never represented with either images or idols. Instead, in the center building of the Temple of Heaven, in a structure called the "Imperial Vault of Heaven", a "spirit tablet" (神位, or shénwèi) inscribed with the name of Shangdi is stored on the throne, Huangtian Shangdi (皇天上帝). During an annual sacrifice, the emperor would carry these tablets to the north part of the Temple of Heaven, a place called the "Prayer Hall For Good Harvests", and place them on that throne.[11]
In the Classic of History, the Duke of Zhou had an altar built in the southern suburb of Luo, the eastern capital of Zhou Dynasty. He offered two bulls as victims to Shangdi. The Book of Rites states that the Son of Heaven welcomed the arrival of the longest day. It was a great act of giving to Heaven. State sacrifice to Shangdi should be on a round-mound-altar compound according to the Sacred Books of Confucianism. Since Han Dynasty, the altar will be built in the south suburb of the capital for the worship. There are three tiers of the altar. On the top tier of the altar were the throne of Shangdi and the son of Shangdi,namely, the founder of the dynasty. On the second tier were the spirit-thrones for the sun and the moon. On the third tier, there are natural gods, including stars, cloud, rain, wind and thunder.
There are around ten stages in worship Shangdi or Heaven:[12]
An ongoing debate amongst scholars is how to render the Biblical idea of God into the Chinese language.[13] Most of the controversy is over whether God should be translated as Shen (spirits or gods) or Shangdi (Most High God).[13] British missionaries of the 19th Century preferred Shangdi, as connecting more with the ancient Chinese monotheism;[13] while Americans usually used Shen, because they saw the concurrent Chinese polytheism as precluding any knowledge of the "true" God in ancient history.[13] Some scholars say that imperialism and xenophobia could have influenced the gradual decline in the equivalence of God in the Western world with Shangdi and other ancient monotheisms amongst Bible translators:
There is an unwarranted skepticism towards the heathens' possession, if at all, of a very limited and low knowledge of the divine from the so-called 'natural/native religion.' The adoption of a local name for the universal God will facilitate mutual transformation of both Christianity and the native religion and culture.—Archie Lee[13]
Dr. G. Wright Doyle objects to using Shangdi because of the singularity of the term, which he finds incompatible with Trinity Doctrine, because he posits that plurality is necessary to any idea of God.[14]
